? ^030 
^877 f 



The American Method 



OF 



Carriage Painting, 



By F. B. GARDNER. 



The Deviltries of Varnish, 

By G. W. W. HOUGHTON, 

(Editor of " The Hub.") 



N. Y. ECONOMICAL PRINTING COMPANY, 
NEW YORK. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877 by Valentine •& Company, 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



THE 



AMERICAN METHOD 

OF 

Carriage Painting, 

EMBRACING FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF 

Permanent Wood Filling, Varnishes, Japans, &c. 

MANUFACTURED AND PREPARED FOR THE PURPOSE BY 

VALENTINE & COMPANY, 

/ NEW YORK, U. S. A. 



By Franklin B. Gardner, 



AUTHOR OF 



The Carriage Painters'' Manual ; How to Paint, or every man his ozon Painter j 
The Painters' Index {in Press). 



SUPPLEMENTED WITH 



A REVIEW OF SIXTEEN ESSAYS BY PRACTICAL PAINTERS, 



DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH, 



By d-. W. W. Houghton, 

Editor of ""fnE Hub." //V' C-OPYR/^^^ v^,^ 




NEW YORK : N. Y. ECONOMICAL PRINTING CO. 



IfJl 






PREFACE. 



At the earnest solicitation of many friends and brother 
painters, to put upon paper a plain statement of the method em- 
ployed and materials used by the best New York Carriage painters, 
particularly that of Brewster & Co. (of Broome Street), by whom 
I was formerly employed, I have at last found time among my 
duties as assistant editor of the Paint Department of " TJie Hub " 
to pen down the most important items relative thereto, with the 
hope that they will at least merit a careful perusal, and possibly 
shed a ray of light in the corners of some paint shop. 

That good results will follow from the formulas here laid 
down need not be questioned, for ocular demonstration of the 
fact may be had at any time in the work of several leading firms 
in this City, all of whom will testify to the accuracy with which I 
have detailed their method; and with the belief that my en- 
deavor will give the reader as much pleasure as it has given 
me to jot down the following pages, I place the MSS. in the 
hands of Valentine & Company for publication. 

F. B. GARDNER. 



O^P"^^ 



THE 

American Method of Carriage Painting. 



PAINTING THE BODY. 

The body (either a heavy or light one) having been placed in 
the hands of the painter in good condition, the first operation 
will be to thoroughly "dust off" every part, and to apply the 
" priming " coat of Permanent Wood Filling. 

Permanent Wood Filling is a liquid of about the same consistency as 
Varnish, and is supplied in cans of one and five gallons capacity. There are 
two shades, the " dark " and the " light," the former being generally used as a 
priming on bodies, while the latter is better adapted for R.R. cars, or work 
which is to be painted in light colors. However, one may be substituted for 
the other in all cases, as they possess the same qualities, with the one exception 
of co/or. 

This priming may be applied either hot or cold, but it will be 
found to penetrate deeper into the wood, to v/ork more freely, and 
to cover a greater extent of surface, if warmed, which may be done 
in a common glue kettle over the fire ; but the best plan of heating 
it is by the use of a small gas-stove, where gas is available. 

/n no case should it be reduced with turpenti7ie or oil, but applied 
in its pure state. The parts of the body which are covered with 
canvas or muslin should be painted with "slush," otherwise too 
great an amount of the P.W.F. would be absorbed and held in 
contact with the glue, and would be liable to soften the latter ; 
but in no case will the liquid affect other glued parts of the job. 
To apply the P.W.F., take an ordinary clean bristle paint brush, 
and, dipping it into the liquid, spread on a portion of the body 
(say a side panel) a moderately heavy coat ; but no great care 
need be taken to spread the same evenly — " daub it on roughly," 
we might say. Then immediately proceed to rub the part thus 
coated with a piece of fine, or, still better, some half-worn sand- 
paper, just sufficient to remove the fuzz of the wood; then wipe 
off all superfluous P.W.F. with a clean rag, acting at the moment 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING. 



as if a mistake had been made, and it was necessary to get all the 
material wiped from the surface. Go on to the next panel, and 
so on until all the bare wood is coated. The inside and bottom 
will not require sand-papering, but should be well wiped over. 

The object in rubbing the P.W.F. with sand-paper is to remove the fuzz, 
which always rises on moistened wood, which fuzz, being very fine and soft, is 
partially rubbed into the .pores, thereby assisting as a filler ; and besides, the 
rubbing levels down or forces the liquid still further into the wood. To simply 
lay a thin coating of P.W.F. on to the wood, and allow it to " soak in," is not the 
proper way to prime a carriage body ; and if you don't do the work properly^ 
how can you expect good results ? 

The body being coated all over, stand it aside for drying, and 
it will be found best to allow it 48 hours ; but if in a great hurry, 
24 hours will suffice, provided the job was well " rubbed off" while 
priming it. 

You now ask, What has this P.W.F. done? The grain does not appear 
filled! and we answer by the following extract from The Painters' Iitdex {■a. 
book we now have in the press) : 

" Paint, to be durable, should unite with the wood — grasping, as it were, the 
fibers, or insinuating itself into the pores, filling them to prevent the entrance 
of moisture, and sustaining itself and subsequent coats by that means ; at the 
same time, it should be composed of materials which, when dry or oxidized into 
resins, will possess sufficient elasticity to allow any slight change in the wood to 
take place — such as given by severe jars, or the expansion or contraction of the 
molecules by different degrees of temperature. 

" The oxidizing or hardening of paint must go on slowly and uniformly, 
otherwise elasticity or toughness in the surface, and the cohesive power will be 
destroyed. Oil is boiled, and siccatives added to render the oil more susceptible 
to the effects of oxygen, and thereby hasten its drying ; but the boiling tends to 
destroy certain properties of the oil. 

" Raw oil made siccative, or drying, by the admixture of dryers to the 
paint, is therefore preferable, as it does not detract from the oil its penetrating 
properties. However, the paint thus mixed cannot be depended upon as a 
filler of the pores, for the oil seeks the interior of the wood, in a watery-like 
state, and coats or stains the pores, but does not fill or close them against 
moisture. 

" To fully meet the requirements of a good priming, the penetrative prop- 
erties of the oil must be retained, and the body or filling property must be 
something which can be dissolved and mixed with it in a liquid form, or, in 
other words, the filling property of the paint must be a liquid which will assimi- 
late with it in every particular, or form a part and parcel of the oil itself. 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING. 



" If we examine ordinary- paint in its liquid state with a magnifying glass it 
will appear similar to fine gravel stones soused in molasses, each little grain of 
pigment being besmeared with oil, varnish, or whatever the paint may be com- 
posed of; and if it be spread on wood the grains will remain on the surface — 
they being too coarse to enter the pores, while the liquid will be sucked in. 
Now, on the other hand, if we mix a liquid with the oil to form the filler, no 
granular appearance is obsei'ved, and if the oil penetrates the wood the filler 
will go with it ; the wood being thus prepared to receive the surfacing coats 
of pigment and vehicle." 

The body having been allowed ample time to dry, is ready for 
the rough-stuff, or "leveling paint," and care should be taken not 
to disturb the surfiace of the body by rubbing with sand-paper or 
anything else, for there is a very thin skin or pellicle of oxidized 
P.W.F. covering every little fibre, which helps protect the wood 
from dampness, and which, if broken, would be rendered useless. 
A simple dusting off prepares the body for the paint. 

Much has been said and written about this leveling paint or 
rough-stuff, and it is not necessary to extend remarks on that 
subject in this connection. However, we will endeavor to show 
why a ready prepared article is best, by giving the reasons 
advanced by Brewster &: Go's workmen, as well as that of others 
who use it exclusively in their work. 

No matter how good a recipe the painter may have, or how 
carefully he may mix his rough-stuff, it is impossible for him to 
so accurately measure the proportions on a small scale as can be 
done on a large one. A barrel of pigment, lo gallons of each 
kind of liquid used, may easily be put together at different times, 
but the painter cannot so well adjust the ingredients in a cup; 
therefore at one time his paint will be more or less elastic than 
at another, and it is well known what effect a coat of extra 
elastic paint, if placed under or between harder and less elastic 
ones, will have. Besides, it is much handier to have the paint 
ready at all times, saying nothing of the cleanliness and economy 
in time. 

Valentine & Company furnish a ready prepared Rough-stuff 
in two colors — " dark " for ordinary carriage work, and " light " 
for R.R. cars and work to be painted in light colors. It is pre- 
pared from a formula which a long experience and test has proven 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING, 



the best, and is uniform to the last degree ; while all that is neces- 
sary in its use is to thin to a proper working consistency with 
turpentine. 

Turpentine, being a volatile oil, evaporates very quickly from all paint left 
exposed to the air. 

The first coat of rough-stuff should be made a little more 
elastic than is necessary in the subsequent coats, that it may 
harmonize well with the elastic P.W.F. underneath, after which, 
the paint as received from the manufacturers is in proper con- 
dition. The addition of 5 per cent. (/. e.^ one part in twenty) of 
raw linseed oil, will bring about the desired elasticity for the first 
coat, and 48 hours should be allowed for drying. The subsequent 
coats may be applied one each day, until all is on. Rough-stuff 
always makes the best job when moderately thin, and it should be 
well brushed down. 

// is a mistake to apply heavy coats of rough-stuff ; better a great 
deal to give an extra one. The precise number of coats a body 
requires depends entirely upon the quality of the woodwork. 
Four coats ought to be sufficient, and it is, after some workmen, 
while other jobs require five or six to bring about a level surface. 

Now, having applied the first elastic coat of rough-stuff, and 
allowed it 24 hours for drying, we may putty up the principal 
screw and nail holes with putty made as follows : Equal parts of 
dry white lead and keg-lead, mixed to a stiff dough with equal 
parts of Crown Coach Japan and Rubbing Varnish, allowing all 
to harden for another 24 hours. The application of the other 
coats of rough-stuff, having no oil added, may take place one coat 
each day, after which a stain or "guide coat" should be given. 
This may be made of any cheap pigment, differing in color from that 
of the rough-stuff. Yellow ochre mixed with japan and turpen- 
tine is considered good for the purpose, owing to its " grit " which 
helps to scour off the outer coats, and hasten the rubbing process ; 
the addition of pulverized pumice-stone to the " stain " will also 
be found beneficial in this respect. When all the rough-stuff and 
stain is djy, which will be in, say 48 hours, the work of " rubbing 
out" may be commenced. The stone used in Brewster & Co's for 
this purpose, is, first, a prepared stone or brick, marked " Schumac- 
hersche Fabrik " (showing it to be of German make), and the 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING. 



grade — of which there are several — is No. 3. II. This cuts 
rapidly, and the surface is then finished with lump pumice-stone. 
When the rubbing is finished, wash the body clean, and dry off 
with a shammy, then set it aside for at least eight hours, for the 
moisture to evaporate. 

This " drying out " of the body is of vital importance, and 
should not be neglected. It is well known that rough-stuff is 
necessarily /^Tf^z/!^-, no matter what pigment or vehicles are used — 
providing it is good rubbing rough-stuff, and the water used in 
rubbing is absorbed by it; therefore, it is essential that after the 
moisture has all evaporated, that the porosity be nullified or 
prevented, in order that the oils of subsequent coats may not be 
absorbed. The reader will notice just here, that our aim in all 
the foundation painting is to make a non-absorptive surface. 
The P.W.F. closed the pores of the wood against moisture, then 
it became necessary to level the surface for the color and the 
varnish, and our only means was in the use of a porous material 
called rough-stuff. If we should mix this paint with sufficient oil 
or varnish to make it anti-porous, we would be unable to rub it 
to a smooth surface. So now, to carry out our plan, we will coat 
the rubbed rough-stuff surface with P.W.F. in the same manner as 
that of priming, excepting that no sandpaper is used. This will 
effectually seal up the pores of the rough-stuff, and, at the same 
time securely bind or cement the paint into a homogenous mass, 
giving us a marble-like surface on which to spread the color. 

We know that mud, if left on a varnished surface, will extract 
by capillary attraction a portion of the oil from the varnish, and 
destroy. the brilliancy of the same. Just so will the porous rough- 
stuff (virtually mud), drink in the oil from the under side, and 
destroy it ; but, thanks to Fred. Greene, of Boston, who first 
suggested the use of P.W.F. over roughstuff, we are now able to 
stop this trouble. 

The coating of P.W.F. over the rough-stuff must be allowed 
at least 48 hours to dry, otherwise there will be danger of cracking 
in the color coats, and when this time has been given we may 
dust off and apply a " preparation," or " ground " coat, but in no 
case should the surface be rubbed or otherwise disturbed before 
its application. This body we will paint black, as that is an easy 
color to describe. 



For the ground coat, mix lampblack with Crown Coach Japan, 
or Japan Gold Size, using but half the quantity of this latter; thin 
with turpentine and run through the mill. When ground, add a 
tablespoonful of raw oil to each pint of paint, stir well, and then 
spread a thin layer upon the thumb-nail, blow the breath upon it 
to hasten evaporation, and in a moment it will assume the same 
appearance it would have when dry upon the body. If too 
" dead," or " flat," add a very little more oil ; if too glossy, a little 
turpentine will help to bring it to the desired " egg-shell gloss," 
when it is ready for laying on. This method of mixing paint for 
color on carriages is the most reliable one to secure a uniform 
amount of elasticity, and yet have the paint to dry quickly or 
well. Owing to the peculiarities of pigments, some being natural 
dryers or neutralizers of oil, and others anti-drying, no rule can 
be established which will give better satisfaction, and almost all 
colors may be mixed in that way. It is our desire to get on just 
as small a quantity of paint as possible in covering or making a 
solid ground, and we therefore use flat camel-hair brushes, or, as 
known by some, " motlers," and " blenders." When the '' ground " 
coat of lampblack has been on 24 hours, we may go carefully over 
the job, and putty any little scratches or imperfections found 
thereon, and then, when dry, a very light rub with fine sandpaper 
will prepare it for the color proper — /. ^., ivory black. 

The introduction of ready prepared colors into the carriage 
paint-shop has been a blessing to the painter, and we cheerfully 
recommend their use in this connection. Masury's Black then, 
for our color, will require a very little turpentine to bring it to a 
smooth working consistency, and the addition of a few drops of 
oil, tested by the thumbnail method, to bring about a subdued 
gloss. One coat of this, laid on with a clean camel-hair brush, 
completes the coloring process. 

One day is sufficient for the drying, when Ave come to another 
important point in our journey toward completion, namely, the 
application of Valentine's Black Japan in the place of the old- 
fashioned mixture, " color-and-varnish," on all black surfaces. 
English Black Japan has been in use in England and France for 
many years, but its use in this country is comparatively a new 
departure. It produces a superior shade of black, and is in every 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING. 



respect a more durable and brilliant coating than the ordinary 
black color and varnish. Valentine & Company have produced 
a Black Japan superior to the English article, in that it may be 
mixed or diluted with any of Valentine's Varnishes without dis- 
coloration (turning green), whereby a gradual increase in elasticity 
from the color outward can be made, giving at the same time 
increased durability. 

This feature of the admixture of the varnishes used in the carriage shop 
is of more importance than is usually supposed. However, a certain amount of 
judgment must be exercised in the matter of mixing them. Valentine's 
Varnishes will readily assimilate when mixed, which cannot be said of all others, 
and by that means work may be turned out at pleasure ; as, for instance, a job 
is promised to be done at a certain time, but it so happens that the few days left 
in which to finish it are rainy or bad drying ones, and the Wearing Body or Elastic 
Gear Varnish cannot be made to dry in time. We may add to either a little 
Hard Drying Body, or a little Quick Leveling, without perceptible detriment, and 
bring about the drying in time. The Black Japan may be mixed with any of 
these varnishes to make it work freer or to add durability ; and this is all brought 
about by the use of one oil in manufacturing the articles — a principle (well 
supported in painting by experiments and tests) which gives a perfect assimila- 
tion or homogenity to the various coatings. 

If the painter uses the goods of several different manufacturers he can put 
no dependence on his work, for he knows not which is adulterated with fish or 
cotton-seed oil, nor what amount of assimilation or " grasping " there will be 
between the coats. While with a pure oil, judiciously mixed throughout from 
the foundation to the finish, he may rest assured of success, or be enabled to 
locate any difficulty he may experience, and remedy it in the future. 

The body being dusted oif nicely, we now apply a medium 
heavy coat of Black Japan, using for the purpose bristle varnish 
brushes, and working the japan, or " dressing it," as some term it, 
just as little as possible, to have it lay or flow level. It sets 
quickly, and the painter will no doubt find it rather difficult to 
work it easily at first ; but when it is understood, and the knack 
of putting it on acquired, no return to color and varnish will be 
made. 

As said before, it produces a jet black color, far ahead of ivory 
black, and rubs nicely for varnishing over. In " touching up " 
any rubbed through places, it is only necessary to first color with 
quick black, and then to glaze over the place with ordinary 
asphaltum thinned with turpentine, to bring about the jet color 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING, 



of the japan. We often hear the remark, " I don't see how those 
New York fellows make their work look so nicely," when one half 
the secret lays in the use of Black Japan on the black portions of 
the work ; and it is this intense blackness that " brings out " the 
beauties of other colors which are in close connection with it. A 
lake or green will be improved by juxtaposition to a jet black, 
and many give credit to superior quality of pigment when in some 
cases a really poor one was used, but the color appears better than 
it is by its associations or surroundings. 

The first coat of Black Japan should be allowed at least three 
days for drying, when it will be found to rub easily for the second 
coat. 

The second coat may be diluted with a small quantity of 
Valentine's Hard Drying Body Varnish, and three or four days 
given for drying. 

The third and last coat of Black Japan may have from lo to 
15 per cent, of Hard Drying Body Varnish added, and then, as it 
is time for the trimmer to put in the linings, the job can conve- 
niently stand a week to harden before the final rubbing or finishing 
coat of varnish is put on. 

It will be seen that no clear rubbing varnish is used, whereby 
the color is not ^'greened /' and after a thorough rubbing and 
washing, a coat of Valentine's Wearing Body Varnish will 
complete the painting of the body. 

PAINTING THE GEARS. 

The wheels, beds, bars, etc., should be coated over with 
Permanent Wood Filling as soon as finished, before the grain of 
the wood is raised by the dampness of the air, wiping off as dry as 
possible with clean rags, when they are ready for the smith-shop. 

The P.W.F. in this case acts as a preventive coat, and protects the wood 
from blacksmith's oil, dirt and water, or the springing and warping by heat, 
cold and moisture. 

When the gears come from the smith-shop, take No. 3 sand- 
paper and cut down every part until nothing but clean wood and 
iron appears. The " preventive coat " has done its duty, and the 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING. II 



job is now ready for painting. Now apply a medium heavy coat 
of P.W.F., "daubing it on roughly" over wood and iron alike, 
then proceed with the wiping off with rags, being careful not to 
leave any P.W.F. on the surface, around the buts of spokes, etc. 
Run the job one side to dry, and give it 48 hours. 

Next putty up all imperfections, and open grain places, but do 
not put on any more putty than you can possibly help. Give 
until next day for drying, then smooth down nicely with i^ sand- 
paper. Dust off clean, and apply a light coat of P.W.F. in the 
same manner as before. 

This closes the porosity of the putty, and forms a film over those portions 
cut through with the sandpaper. 

Let all dry until next day, or, if time is plenty, give more ; then, 
without disturbing the surface, lay on an elastic coat of color. 

The first coat of color should have more oil in its mixture by 5 per cent, 
than is necessary to produce an egg-shell gloss. Give 4S hours for diying, then 
go lightly over with worn sandpaper, and smooth down, putty any missed 
places, dust off and lay on a coat of color proper. 

In all coatings of paint use a camel-hair brush, and apply no more paint 
than sufficient to cover the ground. 

Next day, dust off and apply a coat of color and varnish, lay- 
ing the same on quite heavily with good bristle varnish brushes. 
This color and varnish may be made by grinding the dry pigment 
in Hard Drying Body varnish. If the job is painted black, 
Valentine's Black Color and Varnish may be used. Give from 
two to three days for drying. 

It will now be found that the job will look as if it would be a poor job 
when finished, from the fact that the grain of the wood is perceptible on many 
parts. But patience ! We have closed the pores of the wood against moisture, 
etc. We have smoothed it down and colored it, but have not up to this time 
made a glass-like surface, as in the old fashioned way of painting. We desire 
to fill tip the open grain with vaniish, gum and oxidized oil, rather than with a 
dry porous pigment, for the gum will be elastic, and the severe strains to which 
the wood of a gear will be subjected will in no wise disturb the mirror-like 
surface we aim to produce. 

Now rub over every part with curled hair, or, what is better, 
give it a light rub with pumice stone and water, and apply a 
second floiving coat of the same color and varnish. Give three 



THE AMERICAN METHOD OF CARRIAGE PAINTING. 



or four days to dry, then rub down gently with pumice stone, and 
stripe. When the striping is dry, lay on a coat of hard-drying 
body varnish, give all the time possible to harden, then rub and 
finish with a flowing coat of Valentine's Elastic Gear Varnish; or 
if extra durability is desired, use instead, Wearing Body Varnish. 

This, kind reader, brings us to the end of our journey through 
the New York Carriage Paint Shop, and ere we part company let 
us say, that in return for your patience in giving us a hearing as 
we rambled through the Body and Gear Rooms, we promise to 
give you any further information on the subject that we are, or 
may become possessed of, should you ever feel disposed to ask it. 
At all events, we should take pleasure in opening, and in keeping 
open, a correspondence with you relative to our art, to the end 
that both may be of some service to one another, and the bonds 
which hold us in the fraternity be thereby more firmly cemented. 

Yours truly, 

FRANKLIN B. GARDNER, 

Formerly Sup. of Fai?it Dep. of Brewster &= Go's., 
{of Broome Street,) N. V. 




The Deviltries of Varnish 



PREFACE. 



The following important article was written for the ^''Painters' 
Magazine'' (Vol. II.), and comprises a review of the leading 
points mentioned in sixteen manuscript essays, contributed by 
practical painters in competition for a series of prizes, amounting 
to $300, recently offered by the Hub Publishing Company, of 
New York, and this review has been carefully revised and 
annotated by Mr. F. B. Gardner. It presents in a very readable 
form the very latest facts and theories regarding the conditions 
under which varnish is liable to give trouble to the workman, 
and suggests means of curing such misdemeanors or " devil- 
tries," and of avoiding their recurrence. 

G. W. W. HOUGHTON. 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH 

THEIR CAUSE, REMEDY AND PREVENTION. 



In a previous article (see Painters' Magazine for September, 
October, and January, 1875), the writer has described, at some 
length, the various troubles which the painter encounters in con- 
nection with the use of colors, and offered many practical sug- 
gestions as to the precautions that should be taken, to avoid them. 
We propose now to give a similar but briefer review of the difficul- 
ties attending the use of varnish, most of the facts presented being 
collated from a series of sixteen essays on this subject, mostly 
unpublished, which were written by as many practical painters. 
These writers mention fifty- five (55) technical names for varnish 
misdemeanors (one writer alone enumerates 21), but we find from 
the context that many of these are but aliases for the same trouble, 
and we have thus been able to reduce this total to tivelve (12), 
which may be considered as typical. These again might be reduced 
to three sub-classes — namely, (i), those due to poor materials; 
(2) those caused by unskilled or careless workmanship; and (3) 
which do not exist in connection with paints — those due to un- 
foreseen and accidental agencies of the weather or atmosphere, 
which are supposed by many to be unavoidable. The line of 
demarkation between these causes would not always be positive, 
however, and we will therefore adopt the simpler method of 
introducing the troubles in the order wherein they would most 
naturally present themselves to the workman, as follows : 

I. GOING SANDY, SEEDY, OR SPECKY. 

Definition. — These terms are applied when the varnished sur- 
face appears as if fine sand or seed had been sprinkled over it. 

Causes. — Looking first to the varnish itself, we find that a 
newly made varnish, which has not had sufficient time to ripen, is 
liable to make the work look " seedy," but an experienced work- 



l6 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



man should be able to tell, as soon as he puts his brush into such 
varnish, that it will not do to use it immediately ; if set away, 
however, and allowed to mature, this trouble will in a few months 
be corrected. To use varnish from a freshly-opened can, without 
first uncorking it, and allowing exposure to the air during several 
hours, that the " spirit of varnish," as it is called, may evaporate, 
will sometimes cause a specky finish. "Chilling" of varnish is 
liable to occur during cold weather. One writer says : 

" In cold weather, after you have varnished your job, and after it has become 
set, you will sometimes observe it to be full of specks, and as it dries, these will 
become more apparent, presenting the appearance as if some person had taken 
a pepper-box, and given it a good peppering. This is caused by the oil in the 
varnish, in connection with the dryers with which it is made, becoming chilled." 

The case described was not a serious one, as it might have 
been avoided by having a warm varnish-room, or by storing the 
varnish in a warm place, or, perhaps, by setting the can near the 
stove, but not on the floor, where there is always a draft, for an 
hour or so, previous to varnishing. 

" Chilling may also be caused by exposure of the varnish to 
extreme cold during shipment, or by storage in a damp or ex- 
posed place. This will affect its working, or, in more severe cases, 
the particles of dryer may be crystalized from the state of solu- 
tion, and fill the varnish with specks, which are often incorrectly 
thought by painters to be particles of uncut gum. Exposure to 
warmth will generally remove this evil, and a varnish that is 
"specky" in February may nearly always be cured of the fault 
by setting it away in a warm place until May or June. All var- 
nishes deposit more or less settlings when left standing for a long 
time, and, for this reason, when seven-eighths part of a can of 
finishing varnish has been used, the remainder should be set away 
for less particular purposes. Varnishes improve by age up to a 
certain point, after which they become fatty — often too fatty to 
use — but they never become seedy or sandy by reason of age. 

Specks are also liable when varnish is allowed to skin over. 
Some varnish will skin over although the stopper is kept con- 
stantly in the can, and, this skin being broken and mixing with 
the varnish, will cause it to look sandy or seedy. Three other 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 1 7 



common causes of specky work may be mentioned, namely : dust 
upon the job, as pumice powder ; dirt present in the air, particu- 
larly liable in loosely built shops during windy weather; and 
specks or "lice " in the varnish-brush due to a variety of causes, 
which every experienced painter ought to understand. 

The following hint may be valuable in this connection to enable 
the finisher to keep his brushes clean : have solder run into the 
rivets in the tin of your brushes, and smoothed off. Turpentine 
or oil in the brush will sometimes produce specks; or if turpentine 
be used to thin the varnish, the same result may follow. 

2. SWEATING. 

Definition. — "Sweating" is the technical term applied to a 
greasy gloss which makes its appearance upon the varnished 
surface, after it has been rubbed and allowed to stand. 

Causes. — This so-called " sweating " is caused by the re-appear- 
ance of the gloss after the varnish has been rubbed, showing that 
it is not hard enough to rub and receive another coat. Sweating 
is allied to several other troubles; one writer has recorded the 
following : 

*' The sweating of rubbing-varnish is a common occurrence, taking place 
after the varnish has been rubbed with powdered pumice, over which, if the 
painter is inexperienced, he may immediately varnish, and he is quite astonished 
at the rough appearance of the coat, which he has just applied over what he 
thought was a nice, smooth surface, and he exclaims : ' That varnish is not worth 
a cuss ; it's all sagged-in ; it's all enameled !' Another painter says it's ' punky ;' 
another that it's ' gone livery,' or ' crinkled up,' or ' like corduroy.' " 

You must not expect varnish to dry perfectly over a wet or 
green groundwork ; but bear in mind that all varnish will sweat 
if placed over color or varnish that is not thoroughly dry, and 
therefore care should be taken to have the paint as dry as possible 
before varnishing. If, after carefully preparing the ground, it 
will continue to do so, it is perhaps the fault of the varnish ; but 
do not too hastily condemn it, for it ihay merely require more 
time to harden. Moreover, as the proportion of oil is increased, 
so is the liability of the varnish to " sweat," and the most durable 
varnishes are therefore most liable to give trouble in this respect. 



l8 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



Several painters have enlarged upon this fact, one of them 
remarking : 

" In consequence of not rubbing finishing varnish, sweating does not make 
its appearance ; however, if finishing varnish should be rubbed in a week or two 
after the job was varnished, it would sweat, and sweat badly." 

Is there no remedy, then ? Oh ! Yes; and Capt. M. O'Connell^ 
of this city, describes it briefly, as follows: 

"Allow the job to stand four or five hours if in summer, or over-night in winter,, 
after being rubbed, by which time the sweat will make its appearance. After it 
does this, allow it to stand just as long as you can before varnishing, and rub the 
sweat off with fine pumice or an old pumice-rag before revarnishing, else you will 
have some trouble if you finish too soon, as your finishing coat may have a specky 
appearance all over, or else fine brush-marks will show themselves." 

3. RUNNING, SAGGING, CRAWLING, ETC. 

Definitions. — "Running" and "sagging" indicate a streaked 
appearance of the surface after the varnish has set. '^Crawling,'" 
allied to the above, may be caused by varnishing over an oily^ 
glossy surface, or over a sweating coat of varnish. It may be 
prevented by washing the work, or by rubbing with curled hair or 
a damp shammy. In revarnishing a job which, to all appearances^ 
was finished with English varnish, it is generally best to first rub 
the surface well and apply a thin coat of rubbing-varnish ; then, 
when dry, give a light rub, and, with these precautions, the finish- 
ing coat of high grade varnish will not crawl or blotch. Crawling 
may also be caused by touching the work with perspiring hands,, 
in which case it will occur more particularly on the frames, which 
must receive more or less handling ; but previous to finishing, the 
whole job should be cleaned or rubbed with pulverized pumice or 
rotten stone (the latter is preferable, being finer), which will 
generally remove this source of trouble. Varnish will also be 
liable to crawl or draw when applied to work that is cold, or in a 
room that is cold or damp. 

^''Crinkling up'' or ^'' wrinklifig'' must in some instances be 
attributed to varnish that is too new, and therefore in buying 
varnish, especially for finishing, preference should be given to 
that which is well ripened and matured. One painter remarks,, 
as the result of his experience : 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. I9 



" To produce best results in finishing work, I think the varnish should be at 
least a year old, and varnish of that age will save the finisher much annoyance, 
as he will not be so liable to have his work crinkle or pucker up. When this 
does occur, these crinkles should be partly cut away, and faced down with lump 
pumice and a little oil or water ; and then revarnished, or touched up and var- 
nished, and striped." 

Inexperienced workmanship is also a frequent cause of puckers 
or crinkles in finishing-varnish, the painter not having brushed the 
varnish equally all over, and there is consequently more varnish 
in one place than in another; and when this superabundance 
exists on the surface, the excess of varnish must crinkle up, for 
obvious reasons. 

" Curtaining " indicates the running or sagging down of the 
varnish, particularly about mouldings, ornaments, etc., in forms 
resembling curtains or festoons; this trouble is sometimes spoken 
of as ''festooning." The cause may in some instances be the use 
of varnish that is too new and thin, but "running" and "curtaining" 
are generally the faults of application, sometimes by reason of 
using a brush that is too soft and not elastic enough ; and thus, 
being unable to spread it evenly over the panels, the varnish was 
left thick in some places and thin in others, and will overlap and 
run, particularly around corners and edges. Such runs about the 
edges of mouldings are commonly termed by painters, with greater 
force than elegance, " snots." The brush should be elastic 
enough to work the varnish well over the panels, and this should 
be done as expeditiously as possible, thus avoiding the setting or 
thickening of the varnish before it has been spread evenly. A 
slow-drying and durable varnish, containing a large proportion 
of oil, is more liable to run and streak than one which is harder 
drying and heavier in body, and it will therefore, as a rule, require 
more brushing up. One writer mentions that a " very thin-bodied 
varnish can be remedied by mixing a little hard-drying with the 
finishing varnish, and this," he says, "I can recommend in in- 
stances where the painter has such a varnish on his hands;" 
but of course the durability of the job is not improved by this 
operation. 

" Wrinkling " is explained by one painter as follows : 

" This wrinkling is caused by a too heavy flow of varnish; the outside surface 
absorbs oxygen, and, drying, forms a skin over the larger mass of varnish ; this. 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



in turn, gives up a portion of its volatile oils, which lessen its bulk, and the out- 
side skin, thereby becoming larger than necessary to cover the under mass, draws 
up in ridges or wrinkles, somewhat resembling the wrinkling of the skin in old 
age." 

" Going silky " or " e?iaTneling,'' when the varnish surface pre- 
sents a fibrous or textile appearance, as of silk or enameled leather, 
is another trouble that painters meet with not infrequently ; but 
one writer expresses his conviction that " none are annoyed by it 
except those who work or finish in a poorly heated room, in which 
case you can hardly give your varnish sufficient brushing to keep 
it in its place ere it commences to silk." The colder your room, 
the less you must work your varnish. The temperature of a 
varnish-room should never be less than 70 degrees, until your 
coat of finishing varnish becomes set. Varnish is also liable to 
" go silky " when the under coats are not well dried. Mr. F. B. 
Gardner relates the following interesting and instructive instance 
of " silking," which occured during his early experience in 
Tarry town, N. Y. : 

" I have had varnish become ' silky ' on one side of a body, while the other 
parts remained in good condition ; and, by following it up, I found the cause to 
be a current of cold air, passing between the body and the side of the room, 
from a crack between the base and the floor ; and when this was caulked tight. 
I never saw another case of ' going silky ' or ' enameling ' in that varnish-room. 
This may not be the only cause, but it is well to know that it is one of the causes, 
and it is therefore best to have the bodies raised at least thirty inches from the 
floor, to secure the varnished panels from draughts of cold air, which, if they 
exist at all, commonly lurk near the floor." 

Mixing of turpentine with varnish is also a common cause 
of its " silking." Brush-marks, caused by working the var- 
nish too long, often leave an effect similar in appearance to 
" silking." 

The next two terms will probably be new to most of our 
readers, but they deserve a place and full description in this 
category. 

" Syssing " is a term used by English painters, being synony- 
mous with " crawling," as used in America, but applied more 
particularly to this trouble in connection with repair-work, and 
under certain conditions v/hich will be described. Mr. Chas. S. 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 21 



Middleton of London, Eng., gives the following instructive account 
of the conditions of this evil, and the method employed in the 
English paint- shops to avoid it: 

" ' Syssing ' is one of those evils that occur in jobbing work. It is a common 
plan for an English painter, when a job is bi-ought to him for varnishing only, 
to give it a thin coating, first of a mixture consisting of gold-size varnish^ and 
turpentine, made up as wanted to dry.* The object of this is to set the dirt, or 
kill any grease that may be hanging around it. If this is not flatted down — and 
generally it is not, because it is too thin for flatting — the varnish when laid over 
it will run in lumps, which is called ' syssing,' and of course the job is spoiled, 
there being no remedy but to rub off" the varnish, and varnish again properly. 
The painter, however, may save himself the trouble of flatting over this mixture, 
by putting about two table-spoonfuls of turpentine into a pail of water and wash- 
ing off" with this, which he will find enables him to lay his varnish on all right. 
But varnish will also ' syss ' on new work if it be laid on without previous flatting, 
or on a ground imperfectly flatted ; or if the ground be flatted one day and var- 
nished the next, without giving it another rub over, the oil of the color being 
likely, in the mean time, to rise to the surface." 

Icicling. — Mr. Wm. J. Eraser, a practical painter of Rochester, 
N. Y., has introduced the term of "icicling," which was quite 
new to us, and he gives below a detailed description of a variety 
of "runs," to which he applies the expression, caused by the 
" sweating" of little nibs that have been rubbed out of the rubbing 
coat, leaving softer varnish beneath. He says : 

" ' Icicling ' may seem a strange name to call any thing connected with 
painting, but it is the only thing I can liken this evil to, as it resembles a myriad 
little icicles all over the job, I have met several who declare them to be runs 
from nibs or lumps, but such is a mistake, as there is a clear difference in their 
appeai-ance, and an observing eye will find that the following is the true cause 
of this evil. When the last coat of rubbing varnish is rubbed, not being 
thoroughly hard, the nibs or lumps immediately commence to sweat out or gloss, 
and when the work is finished in that condition every one of these little nibs 
will form a drop resembling an icicle. To avoid this, no job should be finished 
on the same day it is rubbed, but it may be finished on the next day, if required, 
but never omit using the pulverized rotten-stone, water and cloth before var- 
nishing, which is a never-failing remedy for ' icicling.' " 

4. PINHOLING, PITTING, BLOTCHING, ETC. 

These three terms denote relative degrees or stages of the 
same general disease, and their appearance may be defined as 
follows : 

* It would hardly be proper to put in print the English term for this mixture, but it has been 
used to some extent by a few leading coach-painters in this country under the name of "cider." 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



Pinholing. — Varnished panel showing a surface disfigured by 
innumerable small indentations. 

Pitting. — The same as pinholing, but with the indentations 
more strongly marked, as a man's face marked with the small- 
pox. 

BlotcJmig^ or Pock- Mar king. — Presenting the appearance of 
very large pocks or scars, as of burns or scalds on the human 
skin. 

Mr. J. C. Shettsline, master-painter in the Union Passenger 
Railway shops, Philadelphia, offers the most comprehensive list of 
influences which are liable to induce this disease. He says : 

" The defects known as pitting, pinholing, curdling, wrinkling, enameling, 
drawing up, and going stringy, are mainly due to the same general causes, 
namely : i. Change in the atmosphere from dry to damp ; 2. Mixing two kinds 
of varnish of different grades or different makers ; 3. Excessive heat or cold ; 
4. Varnishing over color or varnish which has not become sufficiently dry ; or, 5, 
which is sweaty ; 6. Varnishing with the floor very wet, or damp and cold from 
other causes ; 7. Placing cold or damp varnish on warm panels, or vice versa ; 
by ' damp varnish ' I mean varnish that has been kept in a cellar or other damp 
or cold place. And 8. Another great cause is the want of proper ventilation, 
and of maintaining a uniform temperature." 

Another writer adds his theory in regard to " Cause No. i," as 
enumerated by Mr. Shettsline, saying : 

" A sudden fall of temperature in summer will cause the pinholing or pitting 
of varnish, especially if the varnish-room is saturated with water, which, being 
evaporated by the excessive heat of the varnish-room, is held in suspension by 
the air, and then let loose in the form of minute drops of rain upon the varnish 
while still wet ; when the temperature falls rapidly, as it does at times during 
the summer months, these little drops being heavier than their own bulk of 
varnish, sink, and the varnish i-etreats from them, causing the pits." 

In such a case, a fire should at once be made in the varnish- 
room stove to evaporate these minute drops of water, which is the 
only preventive ; and if this is not done, the work must be rubbed 
with ground pumice, and revarnished, and it often requires two 
coats of rubbing varnish to fill up the pinholes. In summer-time 
throwing open all the windows will sometimes stop "pitting." In 
the opinion of Mr. G. C. Cornell, late of Quincy, 111., " pinholing " 
and " pitting " are generally caused by oil present in the brushes, 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 23 



owing to their not being carefully wiped out when taken from the 
keeper. Several painters give a warning in regard to brushes. 
One says : 

" Blotching may be occasioned by ' preparing ' the varnish, or it may be on 
account of the presence of turpentine in the varnish-brush ; and if a painter kept 
his brush in a mixture of turpentine and oil, he might confidently expect to see 
his panels ' blotched ' when varnished." 

The presence of sugar-of-lead as a dryer, in the color-coats 
beneath the varnish, is also thought to be an occasional cause of 
"pitting," and instances are detailed in one of the manuscripts 
before us. The best way to avoid this source of trouble is to avoid 
the use of sugar-of-lead, substituting Japan gold-size. Another 
writer mentions the same point, saying: 

" When sugar-of-lead is used as a dryer, it should be ground exceedingly fine. 
Our painters use it with lakes because it does not affect their color, but, for fear 
of causing pitting, they take care not to use it in their glaze color, or, more cor- 
rectly speaking, in their varnish color. If they use it in the oil color preceding 
the varnish color, they take care to thoroughly cleanse both pot and brush, if 
they do not use another pot and another brush, before proc^eeding with the var- 
nish color-coats." 

Gold-size, however, would still be preferable. A third writer 
adds the following facts in this same connection : 

" ' Pitting ' — or something very similar in effect — may also be occasioned by 
using varnish too new, because the dryers used in its manufacture are for a long 
time held in suspension, and their presence may produce these troubles. The 
same characteristics will be exhibited if the painter uses up his varnish too close 
to the bottom of the can, owing to the settlement of dryers." 

We have already mentioned that the last eighth of a can of 
finishing varnish ought always to be laid aside for common work. 

And, finally, Capt. O'Connell, of New York, relates the follow- 
ing two instances of " pitting " which occurred during his expe- 
rience, and which the reader will find interesting and very sugges- 
tive. First example : 

" I once heard a workman venting his indignation against some varnish 
which had always worked well before, but now it would shame the small-pox. 
The trouble was this : it was a windy day, the shop very insecure, and he had 
deluged with water the floor of the room, which was heated to about 90 degrees 
Fahrenheit. Evaporation filled the air with moisture, which, with the overheat, 
caused all the difficulty." 



24 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



Second example : 

" I once placed some bodies, just finished with English varnish, with the back 
panels downward, and the body-loops resting on the floor, which had been wet 
down, for safety from dust. Next morning they were a pitiable sight ; beginning 
near the center of the body, which was about two feet from the floor, the pock- 
marks increased in depth and frequency to the part neai-est the floor, where it 
was a complete blotch, while above the center the varnish was not disturbed. 
The cause was plain : cold and dampness at the bottom, dryness and warmth 
above." 

And the same writer adds : 

" A dry, warm atmosphere is the best safeguard against many of the ills that 
beset the varnish-room, pitting included," 

We will now turn to a class of varnish troubles which are due 
more particularly to the painter, rather than to the materials used. 

5. DEADENING, OR SINKING-IN. 

Definition : " Deadening," " going in," " sinking in," " perish- 
ing," "withering," " grain showing," "sadding down," or " sadden- 
ing," " striking in," and " going sleepy " (an English expression) 
— these are a few of the many terms applied to one very serious 
malady on the part of varnish, in which it loses its brilliant looking- 
glass surface, and becomes dull and lustreless. 

One writer, taking a rather gloomy view of the situation, ex- 
presses his conviction that " at least thii'ty per cent, of all the car- 
riage work done in the United States results in 'sinking in.'" 
He must have had pretty hard luck, we fear, in his individual 
experience. There can be no doubt, however, that the trouble is 
an exceedingly common one, and that it puzzles even the best 
painters to avoid it on all occasions. Another writer, whose essay 
is before us, endeavors to picture a more cheerful aspect of the 
case, by arguing at some length that the durability of varnish is 
not necessarily affected by its deadening, and he adds : 

" The durability of a varnish is not lessened by lack of lustre, as the fault 
may all lie in the manufacture, not in the materials used, but in proper pro- 
portions." 

This hardly lessens the difficulty, however ; and we can not 
agree with him in thinking that faulty manufacture is the common 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



25 



cause of this trouble; indeed, our observation leads us to believe 
it is very seldom the true cause, but that the painter is nearly 
always to blame for this misdemeanor. We will now go on to 
explain the usual conditions under which it occurs, allowing the 
practical painters to illustrate each in their own words. 

Ccwiinon Causes. — First, from unseasoned timber. Says one, 
first quoted under this section : 

" Green timber will produce deadening ; but then, as most timber is dry this 
would not make up the thirty per cent." 

Second, from undercoats of paints or varnish that are imper- 
fectly dried. Wm. J. Fraser says : 

" Sinking in or withering is a very prevalent deviltry, especially where the 
painting is hurried too fast, more especially the varnishing part ; because, if the 
undercoats of varnish are not thoroughly hard before the finishing-coat takes its 
position, then when the first coats do sink, as they must in order to harden, the 
finishing must follow, and alas ! you look in vain for lustre." 

It is for this reason that a moderately hard coat is preferable 
to finish over. 

Another offers similar testimony, saying : 

" Go into your repository and examine carriages that have been finished six 
or eight months ; look at them closely in a good, strong light, and you will, in 
many cases, see the grain of the wood, which seems almost impossible after 
receiving so many coatings. Now, I claim that most of this results from soft 
elastic rubbing varnish, that had not half time enough to harden." 

And still another adds : 

" Even though you finish on a poor varnish that is hard and dry, you are 
much safer as regards deadening, etc., than though you had finished on a good 
one that was soft and not dry." 

Third cause, from absorption by too dead undercoats. Mr. 
B. R. Carpenter, of Groton, N.Y., offers the following valuable 
testimony on this point : 

" The perishing of varnish, I believe, is often caused by absorption by the 
undercoats of paint. Bodies have from three to five coats of roughstuff, a por- 
tion of which is removed by facing down ; to this, two coats of dead color are 
added, Avhich have little or no elastic qualities, but possess great power of 
absorption. I have often seen the first coat of rubbing- varnish, when applied to 



26 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



such a surface, so robbed of its elastic quality that it could be removed by the 
thumb-nail easily, being dry and brittle. Is it unreasonable to suppose that, in 
such a case, the succeeding coats of varnish will be affected, even to such a degree 
as to destroy their brilliancy and durability? If this be true — and I certainly 
believe it is — then the following method will prevent it, and will add to the 
brilliancy of the finishing coat. After the body is rubbed down, apply a coat of 
some oily filling or priming that will stop the pores of the roughstuff (for the best 
of roughstuff is more or less porous) ; allow it to stand two hours, then rub with 
a cloth to remove the superfluous filling, and fill the pores of the roughstuff; let 
stand twenty-four hours, then apply your color, which should be made suffi- 
ciently elastic with varnish — say with an * eggshell gloss ' — to bind it firmly, and 
cause it to 'bear out' the following coats of varnish." 

Mr. Middleton remarks that varnish is apt to " go sleepy " 
when used on too quick drying colors, more especially on ultra- 
marine blue, and the best way to avoid this is to make the colors 
not too quick drying. And another writer touches this point when 
he says briefly : 

" What is wanted is uniformity of coats throughout, all being made elastic, 
for by this means only can varnish be made to stand out well." 

We desire to mention here that, in the case of carriages, it is 
not necessary for the body to be so elastic as the gearing. Indeed, 
too great elasticity on the former would be detrimental, detracting 
from the lustre of the finish. We find one practical suggestion as 
to what is meant by an " elastic color " in the following : 

" Apply your color, made sufficiently elastic with varnish — say with an 'egg- 
shell gloss ' — to bind it firmly and cause it to ' bear out ' the following coats of 
varnish." 

A fourth cause of deadening, well worthy of attention, is thus 
explained by Mr. Carpenter, quoted above : 

" All varnish contains gas, and new varnish will deaden when applied to a 
job (giving it the appearance of having been breathed upon), unless time is given 
for this gas to evaporate by exposure to the air. It is my habit, when finishing, 
always to take out my varnish at least an hour before using." 

6. CHIPPING, FLAKING, AND SCALING OR PEELING. 

Defimiions. — Th.Q?>t terms all indicate the partial separation, 
more or less marked, of one varnish coat from another, or from a 
coat of paint or other ground. They are often used to express a 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



27 



difference in degree ; thus, when the varnish flies ofl in small 
particles, it is spoken of as "chipping;" if in larger pieces, that is 
"flaking;" and " scaling " or " peeling " is applied to still worse 
cases of the same sort. 

Causes. — This trouble gives great annoyance to painters and 
their employers, often appearing very mysterious, and in many 
cases of this kind the varnish is condemned ; yes, condemned 
before it is found guilty, and banishment from the shop is the 
sentence pronounced against it. True, the varnish may be at 
fault, but that is not the most common cause of "chipping." 
"What is, then .''" asks the reader. We answer: ^^ Lack of uni- 
formity between the different coats in regard to elasticity^ and the 
application either of an elastic over an inelastic coat, or vice versa.'' 
It takes an experienced and very careful painter to judge cor- 
rectly as to what is required in this respect, but when he has 
mastered the subject, he can produce chipping "to order," simply 
by disregarding the rule of gradually building up from an elastic 
ground to a firm surface. We are inclined to criticise many of 
the remarks, in the essays before us, which bear on this subject. 
One painter asks : 

" Is it not suggestive when I say that varnish will not chip or flake on an 
elastic surface?" 



We answer : " Yes, suggestive of the fact that you do not fully 
understand the cause of " chipping," because an //^^/dtj-Z/V coat of 
varnish over your elastic surface would be more than apt to chip or 
flake, for the same cause of such separation (or divorce) would 
remain — namely, incongruity (or incompatibility). Several good 
suggestions are offered, however. One remarks that varnish will 
flake from color that has not had time to dry, and has a gloss ; or, 
rather, it will crawl off in the first place, and then chip off at last, 
with no fault on the part of the varnish; and another goes on to 
explain, that " if the removal of grease or sweet-oil from any part 
of the work has been neglected before applying a coat of color, 
the peeling or chipping of such color is certain from those parts 
of the carriage where the grease was allowed to remain." A 
surface that has been smoked in the smith-shop will often cause 
chipping, as it prevents a close connection of the paint and its 



28 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



ground. Blisters are also attributed to the presence of grease or 
oil in excess, which has not been removed from the surface. 
Chipping or peeling may also be caused by the application of an 
alkali, and particularly by washing with soap and water. The 
following warning is given : 

" Rub a piece of hard soap over a varnished spoke, and let it stand for two 
or three days ; at the end of which time you can easily chip, peel, or flake the 
varnish off with your finger-nail ; therefore, it will generally be well for the 
painter to avoid using soap in the rubbing of varnish." 

It should be mentioned that soap is sometimes necessary, as 
in cutting down runs, in which case the work should be thoroughly 
rinsed off. Cracks oftentimes admit moisture, and cause the paint 
or varnish in the vicinity to scale off. 

Another kind of chipping is mentioned by a correspondent, 
which we will let him explain in his own words : 

" Experience has taught me that there are two kinds of varnish-chipping, 
yet many painters confound both, though they are entirely different ; and yet to 
the eye they bear a close resemblance, especially when the carriage has been run, 
and returned in consequence of this chipping. In cases of the second kind, it 
will be observed, upon close inspection, that the color-and-varnish has chipped 
from the color, of course taking with it the finishing coat of varnish. I have 
seen many cases of this kind — indeed, it was a common occurrence three or four 
years ago, whenever a certain prepared color was used." 

Lakes sometimes produce chipping. Poor japan will some- 
times induce the same effect, and this was probably the cause, in 
case of the prepared color just mentioned ; the japan probably 
dried too hard, and made the color inelastic. 

As to preventives for the troubles named, we have endeavored 
to suggest these as we went along. Where they have occurred, 
the only cure is to sandpaper or pumice down all the coats that 
are affected, and then repaint from that point. 

7. CRACKING. 

Definition. — The cracking, or breaking up of the surface into 
parts more or less minute, as a looking-glass when fractured, is 
one of the most common afflictions attending the use of varnish. 
The causes, which are several and well understood by experienced 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 29 



varnishers, may be enumerated briefly as follows : i. By an inelastic 
surface underneath, either of varnish or color. W. Ohaver says : 

" I firmly believe that if a job be painted elastic throughout, with the single 
exception of one non-elastic coat, this one coat has the percentage in its favor of 
cracking all the rest " 

2. By a glossy or too elastic ground. One painter offers the 
following valuable hint in this connection : 

" The drying of glossy color is often so very slow that it does not crack the 
subsequent coats till the work has been varnished and run out." 

There are numerous cases of this kind of color-cracking, which 
must not be confounded, however, with varnish-cracking, for the 
cracking of this color is the cause of the varnish cracking prema- 
turely. It will be understood from this fact that varnish has more 
to contend against than paint, for it covers and protects the latter, 
and being transparent, many of the misdeeds of the paint are seen 
through the varnish. 3. By previous coats of color or varnish that 
were not dry when subsequent coats were applied. 4. By destruc- 
tion of the oily properties of the varnish through exposure to 
atmospheric or solar influences. 5. By the action of ammonia or 
other alkalies. 6. By reason of unsuitable dryers in the varnish, 
or its imperfect manufacture. 7. Springing or rupture of the 
ground-work of the painting. 

Mr. Carpenter, previously quoted, offers the following testi- 
mony on two of the points named : 

" The springing of wood or iron work will cause paint to crack. We fre- 
quently see on the sides of bodies long lines radiating from a point near where 
the step-bolt passes through the sill, caused evidently by the springing of the 
sill when persons enter or leave the carriage ; and it is plain that the springing 
of any part of the wood or iron work would have a similar effect. I have also 
seen a small spot on a carriage very badly cracked, while the rest remained in 
good condition, and found, upon investigation, that it was kept where that por- 
tion of the body was exposed to the sun, by means of a window in the carriage- 
house." 

^^ Fire checks" are a species of cracks, very small and running 
in every direction, forming squares, triangles, and circles, which 
are sometimes to be seen all over a panel, but which are not 



30 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



generally visible until a fine polish is made with the finishing 
coats. Mr. Gardner says in reference to " fire checks ": 

" I proved to my satisfaction, not long ago, that these may be caused by a 
coat put over a surface not hardened ; for in this instance, parts of the job which 
did not receive that 'hurried coat' turned out splendidly." 

Cracks can seldom be filled so that they will not show them- 
selves again in a very short time, and the only effectual way to 
cure them is to rub them down, and repaint from that point. 

8. GOING CLOUDY, SMOKY, OR FOGGY. 

Definitio7is. — These terms are self-explanatory as to their 
appearance, and are synonymous with the English expression 
" blooming," which still more aptly describes that the brilliancy 
of the varnished surface is obscured by a "bloom," as on a plum 
or cucumber. When clouding occurs in the case of finishing coats 
of varnish, it is very troublesome, as it very often necessitates 
revarnishing the work; but in rubbing coats it is of little conse- 
quence, and needs no comment. It is an atmospheric disease, 
and in the damp climate of London and vicinity, it is more com- 
mon than in the United States. Mr. Middleton, of London, says : 

" Varnish will go cloudy or smoky if, when laying it on, the varnish-room is 
smoky ; or if the weather is foggy, or the atmosphere overcharged with moisture, 
as in misty weather, when if the varnish-room is not protected against such 
influences, smoke, fog, or damp will set into the varnish while it is hardening, 
and spoil the surface." 

What English painters call " blooming " is produced by an 
over-moist atmosphere. One carriage-painter claims that '' bloom- 
ing " is caused by sulphur fumes existing in the smith-shop, but 
this would be exceptional, for coal containing much sulphur is but 
little used in iron-working. Moisture condensing on the surface, 
and leaving a residue of carbonic acid combined with other impu- 
rities, is doubtless the common cause. The trouble may generally 
be removed by washing and dry " shammying." One writer has 
given a number of very interesting and instructive illustrations of 
the conditions under which clouding is liable to occur, which we 
would be pleased to print in full, but our space will permit us to 
present the conclusions only which he draws therefrom. He says : 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 3 1 



" In one instance, the fogging of the varnish was owing to the want of venti- 
lation in the varnish-room, which was damp, being newly built, and this damp- 
ness having no means of escape (as the doors and windows were closed while 
the bodies were being varnished), settled upon the surface of the varnish, and 
dried with it, producing the cloudy or smoky appearance." 

In another he adds : 

" In this case, the varnish, not yet being dry, received a portion of the fog or 
vapor upon its sensitive surface, which was only to be dissipated by the influence 
of heated irons ; and in some instances the vapor or fog dried with the varnish, 
in which case the heated irons had no beneficial effect. Revarnishing was the 
only cure." 

The same writer concludes by expressing his emphatic disap- 
proval of the common practice of wetting down the floor of the 
varnish-room before varnishing, saying : 

" I am convinced by results that ventilation and a dry floor are essential^ in 
order to produce unclouded work; bear in mind — a dry floor; for if it is necessary 
to wet the floor to settle floating matter, the finisher is at fault, because such 
floating matter should have been removed before the work was brought into the 
varnish-room. I positively assert that, to varnish work clean, it is unnecessary 
to have a single drop of water on the floor" 

We would add that a ventilator with a revolving top will 
wholly avoid the last named difficulty, by carrying away floating 
dust. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on this matter of ven- 
tilation, which is equally necessary in summer and winter. Some 
varnishers argue that considerable heat is necessary during the 
drying of varnish ; warmth certainly assists the process, but 
Tentiiation is indispensable. A single instance will serve to illus- 
trate this. A painter of this city recently tried this experiment : 
A room was filled with varnished articles, closed as nearly air- 
tight as possible, and heated. Forty-eight hours afterwards, the 
varnish showed scarcely any signs of hardening. The skylights 
were then thrown open, free ventilation permitted, and similar 
goods were similarly prepared in the same room, when, in a few 
hours, the varnish became well dried and moderately hard. Fresh 
air did what heat could not do. It should be borne in mind that 
varnish dries a?id hardens^ not by the evaporation of certain of its 
parts., but by the absorption of oxygefi from the air., a?id the oxidation 
of those parts. 



;^2 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



We have already examined two classes of varnish defects, one 
due more particularly to materials and the other to workmanships 
and we will now turn to a third class of troubles, which depend 
mainly upon care^ or the lack of it, after the work is turned out. 

9. TURNING BLUE OR GREEN. 

Exclusion of light or the presence of impure air, such as gas 
from a coal-fire, each has the effect of discoloring varnish, gener- 
ally increasing its yellowish tinge ; and it then has an effect upon 
colors beneath it, turning blacks, blues and kindred coXox?, gree7iishs 
while, in connection with dampness, varnish will become bluish or 
smoky. The latter effect is more or less superficial, and may gen- 
erally be removed by frequent washings with cold water, followed 
by dry shammyings and exposure to the fresh air ; but when the 
body of the varnish has changed color the only cure consists in 
rubbing down to the color and revarnishing. Accidental and 
very satisfactory exceptions may now and then occur. An in- 
stance is mentioned in which a gentleman, recently returned from 
Europe, sent his carriage to the coach-builder to be painted green; 
it had originally been black, but Avas found to have changed to a 
deep green, by reason of long storage in a dark, close stable, and 
so uniformly that it was simply varnished over and returned to 
the owner with bill, as if repainted to order. It is mentioned by 
one writer that the varnishes of different makers often show a 
great difference in their liability to change color, and he suggests 
that this quality deserves to be considered in rating the compara- 
tive merits of different grades. 

10. MUD-SPOTTING. 

Spotting by mud is liable to occur during the summer months, 
if the carriage is turned out before the varnish is thoroughly hard- 
ened. This may be remedied by frequent washings with cold 
water, which will also help to harden the varnish, and prevent a 
recurrence of the same trouble. Mud should never be allowed to 
dry upon a carriage. So long as it remains moist, there is but 
little danger of its leaving spots ; but if allowed to remain upon 
the varnish over-night, it will almost invariably leave stains, which, 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. ;^;^ 



in the case of city mud (containing ammonia) or the mud of lime 
districts, will generally prove indelible. 

II. BLISTERING. 

Definitioji. — The swelling out of parts of the varnish surface, 
after it is dry and hard, into bubbles or blisters, resembling 
pustules on the human skin. 

This, we are prepared to assert, is never caused by any fault 
on the part of the varnish, but it seems to be the common opinion 
of the painters, whose reports are before us, that " blistering " is 
in all instances produced by one and the same cause — namely, tJu 
presence of oil or grease on the work, over which the paint or varnish 
was applied ; and that it generally occurs either from the use of 
sweet-oil by the body-makers to make the panels fit together more 
easily, or from exposure to oil, while in the smith-shop, during the 
process of drilling, etc. This explanation does not fully cover the 
ground, however, for, in the first place, exposure to sunshine or 
heat is necessary as a subsequent agency, acting upon the oil, and 
causing it to expand and lift the covering of varnish above it. 
Again, dampness or sap in the wood, if exposed to heat, will be 
liable to give the same effect, for similar reasons. Water is fre- 
quently absorbed by the roughstuff during rubbing, which, if not 
allowed to evaporate before applying another coat, is liable to 
cause blistering. And third, an oily varnish, under the influence 
of heat, will itself supply the conditions for blistering, as is illus- 
trated in burning off an old job of painting, when the varnish 
blisters and rolls up, but obviously from no fault of the under- 
coats. Or take varnished iron parts, which are unpainted, and 
direct sunlight will sometimes be sufficient to blister the surface. 
Varnished work ought always to be protected as much as possible 
from strong sunlight. Many instances ai'e on record where the 
surfaces of coaches, pianos and furniture have been blistered by 
the action of a bubble in the window-pane, which concentrated 
the rays upon the varnish in the same manner as a burning glass. 
One writer calls prominent attention to the following important 
point, which we do not think is fully understood by the majority 
of painters. He says : 



34 THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



" If the painter roughstuff the coach-roof over without cutting off the nibs 
in the canvas, and giving them time to dry, the consequence is that when the 
carriage is finished and goes out in the sun, it blisters almost instantly wherever 
one of these oily nibs is. In a word, the sun, by its heat, boils the oil in these 
little nibs, and raises the blister." 

In many cases there is no cure for blistering but to pumice 
down the defective surface, and revarnish, In some instances 
the trouble may be remedied partially, at least, by the following 
method, described by Mr. Ohaver : 

" After blisters have made their appearance, scrape off the paint in th^ holes, 
make a few indentures with a brad-awl in the wood ; then give a coat of shellac, 
and finish with about three puttyings over as many coats of lead." 



12. CRUMBLING, RUSTING, OR BEING EATEN BY AMMONIA. 

Definition. — These terms are applied to certain conditions of 
varnish, where there is a gradual loss of brilliancy, and the oily 
constituents are removed, ending in disintegration and complete 
destruction of the varnish surface. 

But little was known on this subject until a comparatively 
recent date, when it was vigorously discussed by correspondents of 
^^The Hub^'' and much yet remains to be learned about this, the 
most deadly of varnish diseases. Three causes are now known 
to exist : t. Perishing by ammonia. Saturate a varnished panel 
with even the mildest form of ammonia — namely, hartshorn — and 
it will in a little w^hile eat up the varnish; and the same result 
occurs when ammonia is present in the air, by reason of the 
proximity of stable manure, coal gas, or animal or vegetable 
matter in a state of decomposition. The street-mud of cities 
contains a large proportion of ammonia, and is therefore very 
detrimental to varnish. Mr. Middleton says: 

" This pungent alkali exists also in bituminous coal, whence it is thrown off 
in the form of gas ; also in animal life, whence it is thrown off by the respiratory 
organs ; and the atmosphere of large cities is impregnated with it. It has been 
detected in London on dirty windows, in minute stellated crystals." 

Dampness favors its work of destruction. It has been found 
that if a carriage is kept constantly dry, it is not so likely to be 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 35 



attacked by ammonia fumes. It is generally easy to distinguish 
where ammonia has destroyed a varnish surface by a variety of 
marks, which one correspondent enumerates as follows : 

" How do I know that ammonia did this work ? I know it for the reason 
that nothing else but ammonia or alkali will turn varnish rusty, at the same time 
leaving a bright spot in some protected place, as if to show that the carriage was 
once glossy ; and also where the varnish is cracked, the edges of the cracks are 
rusted or rotten, which is not so in the ordinary cracking of varnish." 

"The cure," so Capt. O'Connell claims, "is chloride of lime ^ a 
few dashes of which in stables will banish the ammonia, and form 
chloride of ammonia or saal ammoniac, which is not volatile." 
2. Salt sea air and the atmosphere of limestone regions are also 
very injurious to varnish. Those who are accustomed to spend 
their summer vacations near the seashore will remember the 
destructive effect of sea air upon the finish of pianos and furniture. 
Lime seems to have the effect of absorbing the oily parts of the 
varnish, robbing it of all power to resist the weather ; and mud- 
spots in a limestone region are therefore particularly destructive 
to the finish of carriages. 3. "Frost-bitten" varnish has an 
appearance similar to that destroyed by ammonia, but it lacks 
some of the distinguishing marks of the latter, as explained by 
Capt. O'Connell, who describes at some length the case of a 
carriage injured in this way, and he concludes by saying : 

" It had not the distinguishing marks of ammonia about it — namely, the 
varnish did not have that rusty appearance that ammonia imparts to varnish ; it 
was nor cracked on the spokes in very close parallel rings, and was altogether 
devoid of any glossy patches on protected parts, which occur in cases where 
ammonia has been at work. After carefully examining the facts, I came to the 
conclusion that the carriage was exposed to frequent storms of sleet, and, with 
this sleet and snow frozen upon it, had stood for hours at a time out of doors, 
and arriving home late in the evening, was allowed to stand unwashed till the 
following morning, when the frozen sleet was washed off with hot water ; and 
this being repeated many times during a very severe winter, had destroyed the 
varnish all over." 

FLIES. 

In concluding this article, there is one other source of annoy- 
ance to which the varnisher is subjected, which is a great source 
of trouble when the workman has not the means of making the 



36 



THE DEVILTRIES OF VARNISH. 



varnish-room dark — namely, the annoyance of flies. Mr. Shetts- 
line mentions that " in varnishing work with two different makers' 
varnish, one will sometimes repel, while the other will attract them, 
both varnishes claiming to be made the same, and of the best 
Zanzibar gum." And he adds : 

" I have experienced considerable trouble on cars in this particular, having 
had work at times entirely destroyed by them, and I was compelled to abandon 
the use in summer of the varnish which attracted them, for one of inferior make 
which repelled." 

The subject of varnish-rooms is a very important one in this 
connection, which we will perhaps discuss in a subsequent article. 

Geo. W. W. Houghton. 




VALENTINE'S COACH VARNISHES. 



FI N I SHING. 

WEARING BODY VARNISH, 

{For finishing-coats only.) 

This Varnish is very pale, and excels in freedom and safety of working as well as in 
brilliancy and durability. Though a long time in hardening, it dries out of the 
way of dust in ten or twelve hours, and sets so slowly that ample time is allowed 
to accomplish a perfect job on the largest panels. One coat of it is sufficient 
when used over our Hakd Drying Body or Quick Leveling. 

MEDIUM DRYING BODY VARNISH, 

{For finishing-coats only.) 

This Varnish dries out of the way of dust in eight or ten hours, and is the same as our 
Wearing Body, with the single exception of hardening more quickly, thus render- 
ing it more desirable for use during hot weather and in tropical climates. One coat 
of it is sufficient when used over our Hard Drying Body or Quick Leveling. 

ELASTIC GEAR VARNISH, 

{For finishing the wheels and under-parts of Carriages.') 

Though not so durable as our Wearing Body, it is similar in color, lustre, and work- 
ing. When flowed over a surface made with our Quick Leveling Varnish, it 
dries out of the way of dust in eight hours and hardens quickly. 

ONE COAT COACH VARNISH, 

{For finishing-coats on ordiiiary ivork.) 

This Varnish is heavier-bodied and more durable than our Hard Drying Body, and 
is especially adapted for finishing work when but a single coat is practicable. It 
dries in eight to ten hours with fullness and brilliancy, and wears as well as a one- 
coat varnish can. 



38 valentine's coach varnishes. 



RUBBING. 

HARD DRYING BODY VARNISH, 

(A ^-day rubbing for under-coats on best work. 

This varnish dries in eight to ten hours, and hardens so as to rub well in about four 
days. It is fully equal to our Wearing Body in paleness, fullness, and lustre, 
and is much used for finishing over a leveled surface on hurried work not requiring 
the greatest durability. 

ELASTIC LEVELING VARNISH, 

{^A 3-day rubbing for under-coats on bodies of Coaches^ 

This is a medium between our Hard Drying Body and Quick Leveling Varnishes. 
It hardens so as to rub well in three days, and is sufficiently pale for any light 
colors. From one to three coats should be used according to the class of the work, 
and be protected by our Wearing Body. 

QUICK LEVELING VARNISH, 

{A ^-day rtibbingfor under-coats on gears, or on bodies requiring dispatch,) 

This Varnish dries quicker and harder than our Hard Drying Body. In good 
weather, it will harden so as to rub well in two days without sweating out. It is 
sufficiently pale for any light work. It should be protected with our Elastic Gear 
Varnish, when used on carriage parts, and with our We.a.ring Body, when used 
on bodies. 

BLACK JAPAN, 

{^For producing a jet-black stirface on Coaches.) 

This is a jet-black Leveling Varnish, which flows and rubs well. Two or three 
coats should be applied over a black ground, and be protected by our Wearing 
Body. 

BLACK COLOR-AND-VARNISH, 

{A ready-made mixture of drop-black and Varnish for use on Coach work.) 

This Black, made of the purest drop-black and the best of varnish, is superior to all 
mixtures of the kind prepared in the shop, on account of its great uniformity, and 
being ready for instant use, it will be found a great convenience. Though not so 
black as our Bl.a^ck Japan, it is more durable, and rubs well in two days without 
sweating out. N. B. — /t should be well shaken or stirred before usitig. 



VALENTINE S COACH VARNISHES. 39 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

ENAMELED LEATHER VARNISH, 

(For renoz<ating the black enameled leather 0/ carriage tops.) 

All grease and dirt should first be removed from the leather with Spirits Turpentine 
or Benzine, to enable the varnish to better penetrate the pores. It dries in one 
hour, renders the leather equal to new and will not crack. One coat is sufficient, 
except in spots much worn. 

QUICK BLACK LACQUER, 

{For touching tip, in repairing iron-work of gears, etc.) 

This is a jet-black and very quick-drying Lacquer (or Japan), for hastily repairing the 
iron work of gears, etc. It dries in an hour, and requires to be varnished over. 
Our Black Japan is preferable because more durable. 

/ 

JAPAN GOLD SIZE, 

{For binding, drying and hardening colors.) 

This is a superior oil-drier, of light color, and strength nearly double that of ordinary 
Japan. On account of its paleness and the less quantity required, it is especially 
valuable for use with light paints ; and being an oil-drier it is much less hurtful to 
the work than Japan. Once known, it is indispensable to Coach, Car and House 
Painters, for bmding colors, mixing roughstuffs, and facilitating their drying and 
hardening through. 

CROWN COACH JAPAN, 

{For drying and hardening paints.) 

This is a light-colored, .strong drying shellac Japan, for hardening colors, and is well 
adapted to the use of the coach painter. 

DARK GROUND ROUGHSTUFF, 

{For producing a hard and level surface on bodies of Coaches and Cars.) 

This is a mixture of mineral substances, combined with great care, so as to furnish a 
dense body with a sharp grit. It is ground in Japan Gold Size, varnish and the 
purest oil, and is superior to all shop-made roughstuffs (sometimes erroneously 
called "fillings"), chiefly on account of its uniformity and its being ready for 
immediate use. When used over a priming of one coat of Per.manknt Wood 
Filling, the first coat should be made elastic with raw oil, and the following coats 
reduced with turpentine, if required for working. N. B, — Stir well before 
using ! 

LIGHT GROUND ROUGHSTUFF, 

{Same article as above except in color, it being light for use on bodies painted in 
light colors.) 

DARK PERMANENT WOOD FILLING, 

{A patent article for prifning outside work., and permanently filing and darkening 
statural woods.) 

This article, being a very penetrating and non-evaporating anti-damp, of extreme 
durability, is a perfect and permanent filling for the pores of wood. Experience 
has proved that it will not only support the color and varnish better and longer 
than the old method of lead priming, but that on account of its permanent elas- 
ticity, it will neither crack nor flake off; besides which, it saves time, labor and 
cost, and is more convenient, cleanly and healthful. 

LIGHT PERMANENT WOOD FILLING, 

{Same article as abo2'e except in color. Being light, it fills without staining the 
natural wood, and is adapted for use over the Light Ground RouGHSTrFF 
on Bodies painted in light colors.) 



40 



VALENTINE S COACH VARNISHES. 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 

OF THE 

Drying, Hardening, and Durability of Valentine's 
Coach Varnishes. 



FINISHING. 


Hours 
i-equirea in 
drving free 
fr5m dust. 


Days 
required in. 
hardening to 

rub.^ 


Days 

required in 

hardening 

ready for use. 


Months 

of 

Durability.. 


WEARING BODY VARNISH, . 


10 




4 to 5 


13 


{For Jl?ii skit! g-coats only.) 










MEDIUM DRYING BODY VARNISH, 


9 




3 to 4 


12 


{For yinishzng-coats only.) 










ELASTIC GEAR VARNISH, 


9 


.... 


2 to 3 


10 


{For finishing the tvheels and under- 










pa rts of ca rriages. ) 










ONE COAT COACH VARNISH, 


8 


.... 


1 to2 


8 


{For finishing only.) 










RUBBING. 










HARD DRYING BODY VARNISH, . 


7 


4 


1 


6 


{For tinder-coats on best ivork.) 










ELASTIC LEVELING VARNISH, 


6 


3 


.... 


4 


{For tinder-coats on bodies of coaches.) 










QUICK LEVELING VARNISH, . 


5 


3 


... 


2 


{For under -coat son gears, or on bodies 










requiring dispatch.) 










BLACK JAPAN, .... 


5 


2 


.... 


2 


{For producing a Jet-black stirface on 










Coaches.) 










BLACK COLOR-AND-VARNiSH, 


5 


2 


.... 


2 to 3 


{For producing a jet-black surface.) 











* By " hardening to rub," we do not mean merely drying sufficiently to flat with pumice 
stone, ready for another coat, but sufficiently to rub doiun to a hard surface. 




'V » ^ f- 



L 



VALENTINE & COMPANY'S TURPENTINE TANK. 




021 470 363 \ 



Inkrixatiatial ExfiibiUoa. 1876. 



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